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History & Land of Palestine
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Pre-Islamic History
Pre-Islamic History
Introduction: Palestine was predestined by God Almighty to be the land from which prophets and messengers took upon their shoulders the banner of monotheism and called upon their people to abide by it.
In its ancient history, Palestine witnessed models of leadership by many prophets and their subsequent command over their people. These prophets waged violent struggles for the sake of fixing the banner of truth on this holy land.
Before plunging into details, it is important to keep in mind the fact that Muslims do believe in all prophets, that Muslims consider the heritage of all prophets as their own, that Muslims consider their Islamic creed as an extension of the creed of the prophets prior to the coming of Islam and that the creed for which all prophets previous to Mohammed had called for is the same creed for which prophet Mohammed (peace and blessings be upon him) had called.
Consequently, the stockpile of experience by all of the prophets in their call for truth and God worshipping is not separate or different from the Muslims' call and their stockpile of experience.
Consider the following verse taken from the Holy Qur'an (Surah [S] XVI:36) as translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali: For We assuredly sent amongst every people an apostle (with the command), "Serve God, and eschew Evil." It is the creed of oneness to which every messenger had called. When a certain people reject their messenger, they reject all messengers. Consider what God Almighty says in the Holy Qur'an: The people of Noah rejected the apostles (S.XXVI:105); The 'Ad (people) rejected the apostles (S.XXVI:123); The Thamud (people) rejected the apostles (S.XXVI:141); The people of Lut rejected the apostles (S.XXVI:160); and The Companions of the Wood rejected the apostles (S.XXVI:176).
When they encounter the contemporary Jewish allegation of their right to Palestine, many historians engage themselves with archaeology and with the people who had settled, ruled or passed through Palestine and how long the rule of each one lasted. They eventually come up with the conclusion that the Jewish dominion over Palestine throughout history was so short in time and limited in place compared with the Arab and Muslim dominion. Although this aspect is very useful in refuting the historical and ideological aspects of the Jewish allegation, many writers and historians, it seems, have committed the following two major mistakes:
1. To consider the heritage of prophets, which were sent by God to the Jews to rule over them, as a heritage solely for the Jews (this is exactly what the Jews want), and
2. To abuse the biographies of a number of prophets sent to the Children of Israel by using evidences based on the deviated Torah or the Jews themselves. When they use this reasoning, they intend to show the "shameful behaviour" of the Children of Israel and their leaders once they settled in Palestine in order to degrade the value of their State and to show the decline of their level of civilization. Followers of this method of evidence talk about accusing prophets of cheating, of lying, of adultery and of raping the rights and killing the innocent to prove the cruelty, deceit and meanness of the Jews and to distort their image of rule and dominion at that time.
The Holy Qur'an has sufficiently provided us with the ways to identify the Jewish manners and has warned us regarding their debauchery and immorality. But their prophets and their virtuous followers are something else. Prophets are the best examples of all human beings. They should not be abused and most certainly God Almighty should not be abused. We should not follow the deviated stories of the Children of Israel, which abuse both prophets and God.
The deviated Torah and the Talmud, for instance, say that God (the Most High, Exalted and Great) plays with whales and fish for three hours every day. They also say that He cried over the demolition of the temple till His size was diminished from seven heavens to four heavens, and that earthquakes and hurricanes occur as a result of God's tears, which supposedly fall into the sea in response to the demolished temple. The Holy Qur'an mention their allegations in the following verses: The Jews say: "God's hand is tied up (S.V:64)"; God hath heard the taunt of those who say: "Truly, God is indigent and we are rich! (S.III:181)".
The Jews attribute Prophet Jacob with the theft from his father an idol made of gold and with his having wrestled with God(!!) near the city of Nablus, thus he was named Israel. In addition, he has been attributed with offering bribes to his brother, cheating his father and keeping silent regarding the alleged adultery and polytheism of his two daughters. Such things are understandable considering what the Jews say about the rest of prophets.
The Jews have deviated from the Torah or the Old Testament, and they follow the path of the deviated Torah as seen in their manners, debauchery and immorality, under the pretence of what they had attributed falsely and untruly to their prophets. Historians, especially the Muslim ones, should not embark rashly in their search into Palestine's history accusing God's prophets and messengers, as the Jews did in their fabrications, in order to prove other prophets' rights in Palestine.
If the creed-and-faith tie is the ground upon which Moslems of all kinds and colours are united, then Muslims have the priority to hold the heritage of the prophets, including the heritage of the prophets of the Children of Israel. Muslims are still holding the banner already held up by the prophets and are still following their path. All of those prophets were Muslims and believers in the unity of God according to the Qur'anic understanding. Consider the following verse as spoken by God (Almighty) as revealed in the Holy Qur'an: Abraham was not a Jew nor yet a Christian; but he was true in Faith, and bowed his will to God's (which is Islam), and he joined not gods with God. Without doubt, among men, the nearest of kin to Abraham, are those who follow him, as are also this Apostle and those who believe: and God is the Protector of those who have faith (S.III:67-68), and God Almighty also says: … And remember Abraham and Isma'il raised the foundations of the House (with this prayer): "Our Lord! Accept (this service) from us; for Thou art the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing, Our Lord! make of us Muslims, bowing to Thy (Will) and of our progeny a people Muslims, bowing to Thy (Will) (S.II:127-128)", and God Almighty also says: And, who turns away from the religion of Abraham but such as debase their souls with folly? Him We chose and rendered pure in this world: and he will be in the Hereafter in the ranks of the Righteous. Behold! his Lord said to him: "Bow (thy will to Me)": He said: "I bow (my will) to the Lord and Cherisher of the Universe!" And this was the legacy that Abraham left to his sons, and so did Jacob: "Oh my sons! God hath chosen the Faith for you; then die not except in the Faith of Islam." Were ye witnesses when Death appeared before Jacob? Behold, he said to his sons: "What will ye worship after me?" They said: "We shall worship thy God and the God of thy fathers, of Abraham, Isma'il and Isaac, the One (True) God: to Him we bow (in Islam) (S.II:130-133)".
In general, the nation of monotheism is considered as one nation that came from Adam (peace be upon him) till God inherits the earth and all above the earth. God's prophets and messengers and their followers are part of the nation of monotheism, and the call for Islam is an extension of their call. Muslims have the priority to hold God's prophets and messengers and their heritage.
The prophets traditions are our tradition; their experiences are our experiences; their history is our history and the legality given by God to them and their followers to dominate over this blessed holy land is an indication of our legality and right to hold this land and to rule it.
God Almighty had given this land to the Children Israel when they were following the right path of God and when they were representing the nation of monotheism in ancient times. We are not shameful, and we do not hesitate to mention this fact, otherwise, we would contradict expressly the Holy Qur'an. For instance, when Moses (peace be upon him) said to his people: "O my people! enter the holy land which God hath assigned unto you, and turn not back ignominiously, for then will ye be overthrown, to your own ruin (S.V:21)". This legality was linked with the commitment by the Jews for monotheism and conformity with God's method. But, when they rejected to believe in God, disobeyed His messengers, slew His prophets, broke their covenants and oaths, rejected to follow the Islamic creed preached by Mohammed (peace and blessings be upon him) to whom the prophets of Jews had given glad tidings to their people, as mentioned in the following verses: "Those who follow the Apostle, the unlettered Prophet, whom they find mentioned in their own (Scriptures), in the Law and the Gospel (S.VII:157)"; "and giving Glad Tidings of an Apostle to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmed (S.LXI:6)", they incurred the curse of God and His wrath: "But because of their breach of their Covenant, We cursed them, and made their hearts grow hard (S.V:13)" …Say: shall I point out to you something much worse than this (as judged) by the treatment it received from God? Those who incurred the curse of God and His wrath, those of whom some He transformed into apes and swine, those who worshipped Evil, these are (many times) worse in rank, and far more astray from the even path!.
Therefore, the legality of dominating over the Holy Land was changed to the nation that follows the prophets' methods and carries their banner--the nation of Islam. The question as to who has the legal right to dominate the Holy Land, according to our understanding, is not related to race, kind, or people, it is rather related to who is following the correct method.
To continue discussing the Jewish allegation of their right in Palestine according to the Old Testament provisions, we would refer to what they mentioned in the changed Old Testament of giving this land to Abraham (peace be upon him) and his progeny. It includes the following: "…The Lord said to Abraham: Leave your land, your tribe, the house of your father and go to the land I am leading you to … .So, Abraham went as the Lord told him … Then, they came to the land of Canaan … and the Lord appeared before Abraham and said: 'To your progeny I give this land'…." In the altered Torah, there is also the following: "…And (Abraham) lived in the land of Canaan. Then the Lord said to him: 'Raise up your eyes and from the place where you were, look around you to the north, south, east and west, because all the land that your eyes can see I give to you and to your progeny for ever'…." It also includes: "… The Lord made a covenant with Abraham saying to your progeny I give this land, from the river of Egypt to the great river; the Euphrates…".
To refute these issues, in addition to our understanding of them in their fundamental religious context, we can say the following:
1. If there was a covenant, it was given to Abraham (peace be upon him) and his progeny, and the Children of Israel are not the only progeny from Abraham. The naturalized Arabs were also from the progeny of Abraham (the Children of Isma'il-peace be upon him) and Mohammed (peace be upon him) is one of them.
2. If these issues are linked with progeny and reproduction, all evidences show that the great majority of the Jews in our time are not from Abraham's progeny, because most of the Jews nowadays are from the Caspian Jews who embraced this religion in the ninth and tenth centuries CE (Common Era).
3. The Holy Qur'an has clarified the chiefdom (Imamah) issues of Abraham and his progeny without any confusion. Consider what God Almighty says: And remember that Abraham was tried by his Lord with certain Commands, which he fulfilled: He said: "I will make thee an Imam to the Nations." He pleaded: "And also (Imams) from my offspring!" He answered: "But My Promise is not within the reach of evil doers (S.II:124)."
When Abraham asked God for the chiefdom to be held by his offspring, God pointed out to him that his offspring are not entitled to have the chiefdom and oppressors should not be allowed to obtain it. What more injustice, unbelieving and hindering from the path of God and corruption in the earth had been and is still being committed by the Children of Israel!!
Regarding the historical allegations of the Jews, historians have sufficiently refuted them. The period of the dominion of Islam is the longest one throughout history. Peoples who had settled in Palestine more than 1,000 years before the coming of the Jews remained settled there until now. They were mixed with the Arab immigrations before and after the Muslim Conquest. These now comprise the people of Palestine with its Islamic religion, Arabic language and Arab traits.
Palestine in the ancient ages
Man lived in Palestine since early ancient ages. There are ruins which trace back to the ancient Stone Age (500,000-14,000 BC) and the middle Stone Age (14,000-8000 BC). This age in Palestine is called Al-Natoofieh civilization, attributed to Al-Natoof caves, north of Jerusalem. Al-Natoof origin is not yet known. Their civilization was concentrated on the coast. They lived in caves such as those found on Al-Karmel Mountain.
In the Modern Stone Age (8000-4500 BC) the cave life of man in Palestine was changed to settlements. He changed from food collector to food producer. The first evidence supporting settlement life appeared in Jericho, which is the most ancient city in the world. It was established in 8000 BC.
The Brass Stone Age ran from 4500 BC to 3300 BC. A lot of archaeological civilization locations that trace back to that era were discovered in the Beer Sheba region, between the Hebron mountains and the Dead Sea and along the sea coast of Al-Khudiera.
The beginning of the third millennium BC was characterized with the emergence of the old empires in the east accompanied by the discovery of writing and the start of writing history. From here, historical ages started in Palestine.
The era that extended from 3200 BC to 2000 BC is called the Ancient Bronze Age. It was characterized by the emergence of the fortified defending towns built on high hills.
They were spread out in large numbers, and most of them were built in the middle and north of Palestine. The most important locations were in Bashan, Majideo, Al-Afoula, Ras Al-Nakoura and Tal Al-Farei'a north of Nablus. In the third millennium BC, the population of Palestine increased, and the cities grew and became political and economic powers. This period can be called the period of "small-States of towns."
During the third millennium BC, the Ammonites, the Canaanites and also the Yabousians and the Phoenicians, which are considered sub-branches of the Canaanites, had migrated to settle in Palestine. Their emigration to Palestine was around 2500 BC. The Canaanites settled on the plains of Palestine and the Ammonites settled in the mountains. The Yabousians settled in and around Jerusalem; they built the city of Jerusalem and named it "Yabous" then "Hierosolyma". The Phoenicians settled on the north coast of Palestine and in Lebanon.
Reliable historians believe that the Ammonites, the Canaanites, the Yabousians and the Phoenicians had come from the Arab peninsula and that the majority of the current population of Palestine, especially the villagers, are the offspring of those old tribes and peoples or the Arab and Muslims who settled there after the Muslim Conquest.
During that period, the emigration of the Canaanites took place on a large scale. They became the original population of the country. The name of "Land of Canaan" was the oldest name to which the land of Palestine had been known. The Canaanites built most of the towns in Palestine. Their number-within the borders of the current Palestine-was more than 200 towns during the second millennium BC, hundred of years before the coming of the HebraiJews. In addition to Jericho and Jerusalem, there were other old towns, namely Shechem (Balatah, Nablus), Bashan, Ashkelon, Akka, Haifa, Hebron, Ashdod, A'aqur, Beer Sheba and Bethlehem.
After that time, the Middle Bronze Age followed from 2000 BC to 1550 BC. The first half of the second millennium BC witnessed the dominion of the Hyksos, who ruled Palestine during the eighteenth to sixteenth centuries BC. It seems that during this age (around 1900 BC), Abraham (peace be upon him) came to Palestine accompanied by his nephew "Lut" (peace be upon him) and there, Isma'il, Isaac and Jacob (peace be upon them) were born.
The Late Bronze Age (1550 BC-1200 BC) started with the withdrawal of the Hyksos dominion from Palestine and the subsequent control by the absolute Egyptian regime. As to the Iron Age (1200 BC-330 BC), it seems that in its early period (approximately 1200 BC), Palestine had received groups of emigrants who came from various regions, the most important ones were "the peoples of the sea" migrations. It seems that they came from western Asia and from islands of the Aegean Sea (Crete and others). At the beginning, those peoples launched their attacks against the coasts of Syria and Egypt, but Ramses the Third, Pharaoh of Egypt, drove them away from his country in the Blouzioun battle (near Port Said) and gave them permission to settle in the southern part of Palestine. In the archeological inscriptions, the name of "PLST" was mentioned and, accordingly, those peoples were called "Palestians" and then the letter "n" was inserted in their name (maybe because of the plural). So they became the "Palestinians". The Palestinians built five kingdoms, including the cities of Gaza, Ashdod, Jet, Aqroun and Ashkelon. These cities were possibly ancient Canaanites, and they expanded and organized them and built two new cities, namely Lod and Saklash. They occupied the rest of the coast up to the Al-Karmel Mountains. Then they captured Marj Ibn Amir. The Palestinians soon mixed with the Canaanites, used their language and worshipped their gods (Dajoun, B'al and Ashtar). Although the Palestinians had been mixed with the people, they gave this land their name, so, it was called Palestine.
It is apparent from the comparative historical indications that Moses (peace be upon him) led the Children of Israel towards the Holy Land in the second half of the thirteenth century BC, i.e. in the Late Bronze Age. This Age and the Early Iron Age witnessed the beginning of the Jews entering Palestine and the emergence of the Kingdom of David and Solomon (peace be upon them) between 1004 BC and 923 BC. This period was divided into two kingdoms: the Israel Kingdom (923 BC-722 BC) and the Judah Kingdom (923 BC-586 BC). Each one ruled over a limited part of the land of Palestine. From 730 BC, Palestine, in general, was under the Assyrian dominion, which came from Iraq, till 645 BC. Thereafter, the Babylonians were the successors in dominion till 539 BC. The Assyrians and the Babylonians exchanged the domination over Palestine with Egypt. Then, the Persians invaded Palestine and ruled it from 539 BC to 332 BC. After that, Palestine entered the Greek Hellenistic Age. It was ruled by the Ptolemaics till 198 BC and was followed by Seleucias till 64 BC, at which time the Romans came and dominated over Palestine. After the division of the Roman Empire, Palestine was still influenced by the Eastern Roman Empire "Roman State", with Constantinople as its capital. Thereafter, the Muslim Conquest took place and gave it its Arab-Islamic character.
The mission of truth and the tour
of prophets in the Holy Land
Abraham (peace be upon him), was the first of the Prophets whom we know lived and died in Palestine. He is the father of all Prophets, as many prophets descended from his offspring, including Prophets Isaac, Jacob, Yousef, Isma'il and Mohammed (peace be upon them).
According to traditions, Abraham (peace be upon him), was born in Orr in Iraq and lived there for a period of time. He destroyed idols, called for monotheism and faced Al-Namroud with evidence. They tried to burn him at the stake as a punishment for destroying the idols, but God Almighty made it cool and a means of safety for him. Abraham migrated with his nephew Lut for the sake of God: He said: "I will go to my Lord. He will surely guide me (S.XXXVII:99)."
It seems that Abraham in the beginning migrated with his companions to Harran (Al-Raha), which is presently located to the south of Turkey and north of Syria. From there, he migrated to the land of Canaan (Palestine). God Almighty says: "But we delivered him and Lut (and directed them) to the land which we have blessed for the nations." Historians estimate that his arrival in Palestine was around 1900 BC. This date for the ancient history of Iraq represented the end of the "Third Orr" reign, which was ruled by the Samaritans and the beginning of the old Babylon era in which the Semitic elements that came from the Arabian Peninsula (Ammonites) prevailed.
Abraham (peace be upon him), dwelled in "Shechem" near Nablus. From there, he moved towards Ramallah and Jerusalem, passing through Hebron and then Beer Sheba, where he settled for some time. He then departed for Egypt. He returned from Egypt accompanied by Hajar. She was presented to him as a gift by the Egyptian leader. It was also mentioned that she was the daughter of Pharaoh or an Egyptian princess. Then he returned to Palestine and passed through Gaza, where he met Abu Malek, the Emir of Gaza. Then he moved between Beer Sheba and Hebron. Thereafter, he ascended to Jerusalem. Lut (peace be upon him) moved to the south of the Dead Sea as he was sent by God as an apostle to the people of that region, while Abraham remained in the mountains of Jerusalem and Hebron. Isma'il (peace be upon him) was born to Abraham from his wife Hajar. Thirteen years later, Isaac was born to Abraham from his wife Sarah. It seems that Abraham's sons were born while he was in his old age. This we know from the following verse of the Holy Qur'an, spoken by Sarah: She said: "Alas for me! Shall I bear a child, seeing I am an old woman, and my husband here is an old man? (S.XI:72)"
It seems that Abraham (peace be upon him) visited the Hejaz many times. He brought Isma'il and his mother Hajar to Mecca. The story of Hajar running back and forth between the Safa and the Marwa hills and the gushing out of the Zamzam water is well known. Then Abraham returned and built the Ka'ba with Isma'il: And remember, Abraham and Isma'il raised the foundations of the House (with this prayer): "Our Lord! Accept (this service) from us: for thou art the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing (S.II:127)." However, the place of settlement of Abraham remained Palestine, where he died and was buried in Al-Makfeelah cave near Hebron, which is the city named after his name (peace be upon him). It is said that his age was 175 years.
Abraham (peace be upon him) was contemporaneous with Jerusalem's ruler "Malaki Sadeq", who seemed to be a monotheist and a friend of his. At that time, the believers in God were very few. Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him) related that Abraham said to his wife Sarah after he had visited one of the powerful people at that time: "There are no believers on earth except for you and myself." This apparently happened when they went to Egypt. This can be concluded from the verse of God Almighty: Abraham was indeed a model (Ummat: Nation), devoutly obedient to God (S.XVI:120)…"
However, Abraham, the Father of the Prophets, was one of the firm-willed prophets. He had a missionary role in calling for the message of monotheism in Palestine. He used to establish mosques and prayer niches for the worship of God everywhere he used to visit. It seems that he did not have trouble or distress with the people of Palestine, and he was not forced to leave it because of his religion and message. He remained settled in Palestine with full freedom of movement until his death.
Lut (peace be upon him) dwelled south of the Dead Sea. He was sent as an apostle to the village of "Sodom". The people of that village were committing le, i.e. sodomy. Their apostle Lut prohibited them from doing so, but they did not obey him. As a result, God punished them for that and turned their village upside down and rained down on them brimstones hard as baked clay. God Almighty says in the Holy Qur'an: We also sent Lut. He said to his people: "Do ye commit lewdness such as no people in creation (ever) committed before you? For ye practise your lusts on men in preference to women: ye are indeed a people transgressing beyond bounds." And his people gave no answer but this. They said, "Drive them out of your city: these are indeed men who want to be clean and pure!" But we saved him and his family, except his wife: she was of those who lagged behind. And we rained down on them a shower of (brimstone): Then see what was the end of those who indulged in sin and crime! (S.VII:80-84)" and "When Our Decree issued, We turned (the cities) upside down, and rained down on them brimstones hard as baked clay, spread, layer on layer, marked as from thy Lord: nor are they ever far from those who do wrong!" (S.XI:82-83).
The Holy Qur'an indicated that Abraham (peace be upon him) was contemporary with Lut's mission and the destroying of his people. Angels came and gave him glad tidings of Isaac and told him that they were sent to destroy Lut's people. He, then, said to them: "… But there is Lut there. They said: 'Well do we know who is there: we will certainly save him and his following, except his wife'…" Thus, God Almighty gave victory to his apostle Lut and purified his holy land from "…the town which practiced abominations…" The glad tidings came to Abraham that Isaac would carry the banner of monotheism after him in the Holy Land so that the spreading of God's light would continue.
Isaac lived in the land of Palestine. God Almighty blessed him with Jacob (peace be upon him) and Israel, who is considered by the Jews as their father. Isaac and Jacob were the light of guidance after Abraham (peace be upon him). Consider the following marvelous Qur'anic text: And We bestowed on him Isaac and, as an additional gift (a grandson), Jacob, and We made righteous men of every one (of them). And we made them leaders, guiding (men) by Our Command, and We sent them inspiration to do good deeds, to establish regular prayers, and to practise regular charity; and they constantly served Us (and Us only) (S.XXI:72-73).
Jacob (peace be upon him) was born in the eighteenth century BC (around 1750 BC) in Palestine. But, it seems that he immigrated to Harran "Al-Raha", where he got married and produced 11 sons, among whom was Joseph (peace be upon him). His twelfth son, Benjamin, was born in the land of Canaan (Palestine). Jacob (peace be upon him) and his children returned to Palestine and lived in Sa'ar near Hebron. The history concerning his son, Joseph, is well known and detailed in Surah Yousef (Joseph) in the Holy Qur'an. The story unfolds as Joseph's brothers plot against Joseph and throw him down to the bottom of a well. Then Joseph was found by a caravan of travelers who sold him as a slave in Egypt. He grew up there, prayed to God, rejected women's temptations and was in prison till he was honoured by God and was put in charge of the storehouses of the land of Egypt. This was a result of his skillful interpretation of a dream by a king, and his absolution was proved. Joseph brought his father, Jacob, and his brothers to Egypt where God restored Jacob's sight after his eyes became white from the sorrow he experienced over his perceived loss of Joseph. Joseph had also forgiven his brothers. Some narrations mentioned that Jacob lived in Egypt for 17 years, but he was buried near his grandfather and father--Abraham and Isaac--in Hebron.
The period during which Jacob and his children lived in Egypt coincided with the domination by the Hyksos over Egypt from 1774 BC to 1567 BC; they were not originally from Egypt.
However, it seemed that Joseph and his brothers, the children of Jacob (Israel), were all kept busy with the liberty of work and worship in Egypt. They played their role in the calling for monotheism. However, their condition changed in the successive generations. The Children of Israel fell under the oppression of the Pharaoh till God sent Moses to Pharaoh to take the Children of Israel out of Egypt to the Holy Land.
The Children of Israel after Moses (peace be upon him)
The Children of Israel during that period were the people of truth-keepers and bearers of the monotheism banner. The Pharaoh of Egypt at that time was so arrogant and overbearing. He even went so far as to allege that he was of the divinity. In fact, he was a debaucher and oppressed the Children of Israel. He was known to slay their sons, and keep their females alive: Truly Pharaoh elated himself in the land and broke up its people into sections, depressing a small group
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Palestine Under Islam
Palestine Under Islam
Introduction
Since the second Abbasid period, which commenced after the mid of the third Hijri century, the Islamic Caliphate State was progressively in weakening till it was broken down into three Caliphates instead of one. The Abbasid Caliphate was established in the East; the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt, parts of North Africa and Syria, and the Umayyad Caliphate in Andalus. The Crusades took place under these circumstances.
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The political map of the region before the Crusades
Forty years before the Crusades, the Turkish Saljuks had succeeded in dominating Baghdad and took over the rule under the nominal Abbasid Caliphate. The Saljuks had managed to dominate over larger parts of Persia, northern Iraq, Armenia and Asia Minor around 1040 CE. The Saljuk ruler, Toghrol Bic, dominated over Bain 1055 CE.
The Saljuks spread their rule over the Byzantines in Asia Minor. On 19 August 1071 CE, the Malathkard battle, under the command of the Saljuk ruler Alb Arsalan, took place, and a catastrophe befell the Byzantines till the end of the eleventh century CE.
In 1071 CE, the Saljuks seized most of Palestine except for Arsout, and dismissed the Fatimid dominion from it. The Saljuks expanded their dominion to include most of Syria.
In 1092 CE (485 H [Hijra]), the Saljuk Sultan Malikshah passed away, thereby breaking down the Saljuks' dominion and launching many long and severe battles among them over the dominion and power. In 1096 CE, their rule was divided into five kingdoms: Sultanate of Persia (under the ruler Birkiyarouq), Kingdom of Khurasan and beyond the River (under the ruler Singer), Kingdom of Aleppo (under the ruler Radwan), Kingdom of Damascus (under the ruler Daqaq) and the Roman Saljuks Sultanate (under the ruler Qalj Arsalan). Most of the regions in Palestine were subjected to the Damascus regime, and during the weakness of the two rulers of Syria (Radwan and Daqaq), a lot of private rulers emerged, none of which dominated more than one city.
The Crusaders commenced their military campaign of 1098 CE (491 H) while Muslim regions in Syria, Iraq and others were torn apart because of their differences and bloody conflicts. The two brothers, Radwan and Daqaq, sons of Titish, launched a war against each other in 490 H. Many battles broke out between Mohammed Ibn Malikshah Birkiyarouq because of their conflict over the power in which they exchanged victories and sermons in the Caliphate court during the period 492-497 H.
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First Crusader military campaign and its results
During Pope Urban the Second's time (1088-1988 CE), the Europeans focused on the Holy Land. The Pope called on the Claremont Council on 26 November 1095 CE to restore the Holy Land by taking it back from the Muslims.
Many councils were held in Limoux, Angariz, Man, Tours, Bouwatieeh, Bordeaux, Toulouse and Neim, in which he called for launching the Crusades during the period 1095-1096 CE. He promised that any volunteer who would participate in the Crusades would be forgiven his sins. He also promised that any crusader's property would be kept under the auspices of the Church during their absence. He required that each warrior should wear a cloth cross on his tunic.
The Crusades were launched as public campaigns or callers' campaigns. They were poor in arms and in order. One of these campaigns was the campaign of Peter the Hermit, who was an eloquent person known for riding on a lame donkey barefoot and with tattered clothes. He gathered about 15,000 volunteers in France. En route to their destination, they committed the massacre of 4,000 individuals because of a dispute over rations. The bands of Walter the Penniless assembled with them in Constantinople, and they all entered the Asian seashore. A battle with the Saljuks took place and the Saljuks defeated them and killed 22,000 Crusaders. Only 3,000 Crusaders survived. As to the Volkmar and Ameikh campaigns, they began by massacring the Jews along their route. Thereafter, the two campaigns perished in Hungary!
The first Crusade campaign took place in which professional European barons and knights participated. The campaign started to overcome the Muslim regions beginning in the summer of the year 1097 CE. In March 1098 CE, the Crusades formed Al-Raha State under the leadership of the Pole Baldwin. The Crusaders besieged Antioch for nine months. The ruler of Antioch, Baggissian, had shown courage, good opinion and took precautions more than anyone else. Thus, the Crusades perished. However, if their crowds had survived, they would have dominated over the Muslim countries. One of the Armenians who was guarding the walls of the city contacted the Crusaders. They gave him money and property for opening the door of the tower he was guarding. Because of this, the Crusaders occupied the city and formed their second State on 3 June 1098 CE (491 H) under Bohemond of Normandy.
While the Saljuks were defending themselves against the Crusaders along the north of Syria, the Fatimids took the opportunity to invade and occupy Tyre in 1097 CE. They dominated over Jerusalem in February 1098 CE, while the Crusaders were besieging Antioch. In Tripoli, the Judge Ibn Ammar, one of the followers of the Fatimids, declared his independence. The Fatimids sent to the Crusaders, during their besieging of Antioch, a mission so as to join in alliance. They proposed to fight against the Saljuks provided that they should capture Palestine while the northern region (Syria) would be under the dominion of the Crusaders. The Crusaders sent a delegation to Egypt to manifest their "good intention".
While the Saljuks were engaged with the Crusades, the Fatimids were engaged in expanding their dominion in Palestine over the Saljuk's State till their borders reached Al-Kalb River north of the Jordan River in the east!
Treacheries and betrayals of the States of the cities, which were so eager to gain the Crusaders' friendship during their expansion, were manifested. This happened when the ruler of the Sheezar region contacted the Crusaders and agreed not to encounter them and to provide them with what they needed, such as food and rations. He even sent two guides with them to help them find the right routes. The city of Homos also gave them gifts. The city of Mosyaf concluded a treaty with them. Tripoli paid to them taxes and provided them with guides. Beirut paid them money and proposed to be subjugated to them in case they managed to seize Jerusalem.
Raymond of Toulouse (Prince of Province and Toulouse in France) continued to lead the rest of the Crusaders' march to Jerusalem. Their number was only 1,000 knights and 5,000 infantry. In the springtime of the year 1099 CE, they entered Palestine. They passed by Acre, whose ruler provided the Crusaders with supplies, then by Qeisarya and Arsouf. After that, they captured Al-Ramleh, Lod and Bethlehem. On 7 June 1099 CE, the besiege of Jerusalem started. Iftikhar Al-Dawalah, who was appointed by the Fatimids, ruled it. The city was captured on 15 July 1099 (23 Sha'aban 492 H). The Crusaders continued killing the Muslims for one week. They killed more than 70,000 inside Al-Aqsa Mosque, including many groups of Muslim chiefs, scholars and worshippers. Both the Fatimid and the Abbasid States did not do anything to help but rather kept silent regarding these events. Jerusalem was ruled by the leader of the Crusades, Godfry of Bouillon, who was called humbly the "Jerusalem defender". Nablus and Hebron surrendered to the Crusaders.
It is narrated that only 300 knights and 2,000 infantry of the Crusaders remained for this reason--they could not expand their dominion over more territories because most of them returned home after Jerusalem was conquered. Therefore, the kingdoms of the Crusaders became like islands surrounded by enemies. Nevertheless, these kingdoms continued to survive for 200 years whereafter the last one perished because of lack of supplies and expeditions. The Muslims were weak because they split into groups, making their numbers very small. They did not take advantage of the opportunity to overcome the Crusaders during their periods of spreading out over large areas in limited numbers. The Muslims lagged till ot was too late. The Crusaders became strong during the Muslim period of weakness and it was no longer an easy task to drive the Crusaders out.
The Crusaders continued to capture more cities in Palestine. Jaffa was captured during the besieging of Jerusalem by Genoan ships (in the Mediterranean Sea) on 15 June 1099 CE. They also captured the eastern area of Lake Tiberias (Al-Sawad area) in May of 1100 CE. The Crusaders also captured Haifa by force during the month of Shawwal 94 H (August 1100 CE) with the help of a great fleet from Venice. They dominated over Arsouq peacefully and drove its inhabitants out. They captured Qeisarya by force on 17 May 1109 CE. They killed its inhabitants and robbed their property on 17 May 1101 CE. Thus, the Crusaderimposed their dominion over Palestine except Ashkelon owing to the Egyptians (the Fatimid) supplying it with ammunition, men and funds every year. Although the Crusaders used to besiege Ashkelon every year, they failed to capture it until the year 1153 CE (548 H). In that year, Ashkelon's inhabitants managed to drive the Crusaders back. But, when they got desperate and were about to retreat, they received tidings that Ashkelon's people were in dispute. So, the Crusaders waited with patience. The reason for the dispute between the parties of Ashkelon was because of a power struggle; each party alleged that they alone achieved the victory. However, the dispute increased in size till one person from one of the two parties was killed. This led to a much worse situation and, consequently, war broke out between them and many of them were killed. The Crusaders were hoping for this window of opportunity and shortly thereafter, they advanced to Ashkelon and easily occupied it.
Although the Crusaders were small in number, they managed to maintain great control by building fortified castles that were built like islands in many areas in Sham. And as the struggle continued between the Muslims themselves, some of them resorted to getting help from the Crusaders to overpower their foes. The Muslims at large were weaker, and the Crusaders became more powerful and dominant, to such a degree that they played the role of a guardian policing the region.
The struggle between Baktash and Tagatken over Damascus continued, and Baktash sought help from the king of the Crusaders in 498 H and from all those "who wanted corruption." However, the king's only help was to push Baktash for further corruption, which ultimately led to his downfall and the triumph of Tagatken. At the battle between the Fatimids and the Crusaders in 498 H, in an area between Ashkelon and Jaffa, the Fatimids were supported by a force of more than 300 knights from Damascus, and the Crusaders were helped by a group of Muslims led by Baktash Bin Tatash. When the Sultan's army, under the leadership of Barsaq Bin Barsaq, came from Iraq in 509 H to Damascus for the sake of fighting the Crusaders, the rulers of Halab and Damascus feared for their own interests and power. They collaborated, under the leadership of Tagatken, with the Antakya Crusader troops to oppose the Sultan's army. Tagatken fought the Crusaders of Bayt Al-Maqdis and won back the city of Rafnya after the Crusaders captured it.
Generally, however, the Muslim struggle (Jihad) against the Crusaders continued, though it actually lacked a strategic plan or organization. Some of the other reasons for the continuation of the struggle include the fact that there were many Muslim leaders, who appeared and disappeared frequently, which led to a lack of stable leadership. Also, the conflict with the Crusaders was distributed on many fronts simultaneously in Belad El-Sham. Furthermore, Muslims did not have a powerful centre that could be used as a launching base for their assaults on the Crusaders. More often than not, the battles were mainly in the form of a single Muslim city or castle trying to defend itself, or expand, against the Crusaders.
The wars continued between the Muslims and the Crusaders. Sometimes the Muslims triumphed, and in other times the Crusaders achieved the victory. It was not difficult for Muslims to get into the middle of Palestine and fight the Crusaders at Ramleh or Jaffa, for instance, but the Crusaders continued to have great control over the areas they occupied.
As a result, many new Muslim leaders appeared, but they were not strong enough to unite the Muslim forces for the fight against the Crusaders. Nonetheless, these leaders kept the spirit of resisting the Crusaders alive, and they inflicted them with many casualties and damages. They deprived the Crusaders from the security they were after, and managed to kill and capture many of their prominent leaders. For example, when Mu'een Al-Dawlah Saqman was fighting a war with Shams Al-Dawlah Jakramesh, and Harran was surrounded by the Crusader forces in 497 H, they started to contact each other and pledged a solemn oath for sacrificing themselves for the sake of God and His retribution. They gathered near Al-Khabour area in an army composed of more than 10,000 men from various nationalities, among who were Turks, Arabs and Kurds. They met with the Crusaders at Al-Bleekh River and defeated them. The Muslims captured the Crusader leader Burdawel and traded him for 35 dinars. They were also able to reclaim 160 Muslim prisoners of war that had previously been captured by the Crusaders. In this battle, however, more than 12,000 Crusader soldiers were killed.
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Imad El-Deen Zanki carries Al-Jihad banner
The long era of Al-Jihad against the Crusaders entered a new phase with the appearance of Imad El-Deen Zanki Bin Aqsnaqr, who founded the Zanki State at Mousel and Halab. Zanki was appointed as a ruler of Mousel in 521 H after he had shown great skill and efficiency in ruling the States of Basra and Waset in Iraq. During the holy month of Muharram in the year 522 H, he managed to gain control over Halab. Zanki started to fight the Crusaders, and he defeated them in many battles.
Zanki's efforts for uniting the Moslems against the Crusaders were relentless. He recaptured the cities of Hama, Hams, Ba'albek, Sarji, Dara, Ma'rra, Kafr Taleb, Al-Akrad, Shahrazour, Al-Hadeetha and many other cities, as well as Al-Soor castle in the Abu Bakr area, Al-Hameediya castle, Ba'reen's castle and Al-Ashhab's castle from the Hakarian Kurds.
In the year 534 H, Zanki tried to capture Damascus twice, but his effort was in vain. Damascus was really the key to getting Palestine back. Unfortunately, Mu'een El-Deen Anz, the ruler at the time, contacted the Crusaders and made an alliance with them against Zanki and promised them the city of Banias and they agreed. But Zanki went after them before they came to Damascus and they decided to back off. Nonetheless, Mu'een El-Deen kept his promise of giving up Banias, not to the Crusaders, but to the Muslims!
The most famous triumph ever made by Zanki, however, is his conquering the city of Al-Raha, and his destroying the kingdom of the Crusaders that was established there. He besieged the city for four weeks, and opened it perforce on the sixth of Jamadi Al Akhera in the year 539 H. He also captured all the cities that were under the province of the previous kingdom in the Peninsula. He also liberated the city of Surooj, and all the cities that were captured by the Crusaders adjacent to the east side of the Euphrates, except the city of Beerah.
After a life of Jihad that lasted for 20 years, Imad El-Deen Zanki was martyred in the middle of September in the year 1146 CE (5 Rabee' El-Awal 541 H). This was accomplished by an act of treason by some of his followers while he was besieging Ja'beer's castle at the age of 60 or so. According to Ibn El-Katheer, Zanki was an able politician and was highly respected and esteemed by his military and civil subordinates. Before he came to power, the country was a wasteland full of corruption and alliances with the Crusaders by the previous rulers. When he came into power, all of that was changed, and he set the country right and brought its prosperity back to it. "Zanki was the best of kings in form and manners. He was courageous and powerful and managed to take control over all the other kings at the time. He was very kind with women, and very generous with all his subordinates." After his untimely death, Zanki was later known as the Martyr.
Zanki worked in the most difficult circumstances of conflict between the rulers and princes of the Salajiqa dynasty on the one hand, and between them and the Abbasid dynasty on the other. In addition to that, he suffered from the atmosphere imposed by the inheritance ruling traditions and the greed of princes and rulers to obtain any city or a castle that they could reach. Moreover, the Crusaders were very powerful and strong during his time. Despite that, he managed to substantiate a firm base of Jihad against the Crusaders to the north of Irand Syria. He also defeated the Crusaders and humiliated them more than once. Zanki made it possible to fight for regaining the lost land, and he was a model leader under the banner of Islam who brought back the hope of liberating the occupied holy grounds of the Muslims all over the world.
After he passed away, his State was divided between his two sons according to the inheritance tradition; Nour El-Deen Mahmoud took the State of Halab and its subordinates, and Sayf El-Deen Ghazi took the State of Mousel and its subordinates.
Nour El-Deen Mahmoud was born 20 years after the fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Crusaders on 17 Shawwal in 511 H (February 1118 CE). He was tall, good-looking with dark complexion and a light beard. He married the daughter of Mu'een El-Deen Anz in the year 541 H and had a girl and two sons.
Under his rule, a new great phase for Jihad started in Belad El-Sham. During his reign, which lasted for 28 years, Nour El-Deen Mahmoud had one goal--uniting Muslims and liberating their occupied lands.
He left no stone unturned for the sake of uniting Muslims and elevating them in all the aspects of life within an integrated Islamic pattern to regain the Islamic glory and expel the unjust occupation of the Crusaders.
To accomplish this purpose, Nour El-Deen Mahmoud initiated an Islamic renaissance that stressed the need for the Islamic solution. Ibn El-Katheer describes him, saying, "Of all the kings I read about in pre-Islamic periods, and in the Islamic period as well, I never saw a king more just and kind to his subordinates among the Rashideen caliphs and Umar Bin Abdul Aziz than Nour El-Deen Mahmoud. He was very clever and witty, and was well aware of his time." He never valued men for their social status and wealth. He only esteemed those who were honest and hard working.
He was also known for his piety and love of God. He was very keen to perform all the prayers and celebrate the ceremonies of Islam. He performed the Isha' prayer (the evening prayer), and then after midnight would awake to start praying till it was time for the dawn prayer. He also fasted a lot.
He was known for his sound erudite knowledge. He was well versed with the Hanafiah tenet and was given license to relate the Prophet's talks and speeches. He wrote a book on the concept of Jihad. He was a sedate person and was bestowed with a great deal of charisma. "He was fearful though lenient and merciful. And in his court there was only science and religion and consulting on Jihad. In all his life he never uttered a bad word in anger or pleasure. He was a grave, silent man."
He was disinterested and modest "to such a degree that his expenses were not different from the poorest and neediest of his subordinates." When his wife complained from the hardships of the difficult life he put her in, he gave her three shops he owned in Hams city and told her, "That is all that I have. And do not expect me to lay a finger on the money of the Muslims I am entrusted with because I fear the wrath of God."
The grave Sheik Al-Naysabouri told him once: "I beg you, do not jeopardize yourself and Islam. If you were killed in a battle, the Muslims will all be killed."
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The continuation of Jihad against the Crusaders
The Crusaders whose cities and castles were conquered gathered in the city of Sour. Salah El-Deen Al-Ayoubi was very lenient with them and allowed them to go to that city freely. So they started to send calls for help and received back up and support till they were strong again. Furthermore, Salah El-Deen Al-Ayoubi set free the king Jae in the year 584 H on the condition that he should go to France. Rather, Jae headed to Sour and took the leadership of the Crusaders with the help of the fleet of Biza the Italian. On that occasion, Ibn El-Katheer says, "It was all done because of the mistake by Salah El-Deen to let all those he captured go free. Thereafter, he was full of remorse for what he had done."
The Crusaders attacked the city of Akka from Sour in the year 585 H (1189 CE), and they waited there till they got the support they needed from the third campaign of the Crusaders, which was called upon by Pope Urban the Second to regain Jerusalem. Three European kings led the campaign--the Emperor of Germany Fredrik Barbarosa, whose most men died on the trip, Richard "the Lionhearted" king of England, who came by sea, and Philip Augustas, the king of France. King Richard was a remarkable man. He "had the evil of the Crusaders and their hatred for Muslims. He was courageous, smart and patient. He was a great source of trouble for Muslims." These three forces besieged the city of Akka (on Rabee' El-Thani-Jamadi El-Aoula 587 H [June 1191 CE]), and it fell into their hands on 17 Jamadi El-Aoula 587 (12 July 1191 CE). With this occupation, the Crusaders managed to create a base for themselves in Palestine again. The Muslims hit back, and there were many battles between both sides. However, the Crusaders continued their march and expanded their territories on the south coast by occupying the cities of Haifa and Jaffa.
It is important to note that the struggle was a bitter and bloody one between the two sides. Ibn El-Katheer noted that Salah El-Deen defended Akka very bravely, and he and his forces fought for it for 37 months and killed more than 50,000 soldiers from the Crusaders. The third campaign of the Crusaders ended when Salah El-Deen made the Ramleh treaty with Richard the Lionhearted on 21 Sha'aban 588 H (1 September 1192 CE). The treaty was held for three years and three months, during which time the Crusaders took control of the coast from Jaffa to Akka and were allowed to visit Jerusalem and to carry out their commercial activities with either of the two sides. It is of extreme importance to elaborate here on some of the clauses of the treaty, which, unfortunately, some of those defeatists who live among us now take against Salah El-Deen as a man who wasted the rights of Islam and Muslims and turned to making up with the Jews:
1. Salah El-Deen was not in favour of the treaty. When he gathered the consulting princes to discuss the issue, his opinion was to refuse the treaty. According to Al-Imad Al-Asfahani, Salah El-Deen said, "Thanks to God we are great in force, and our victory is approaching. We are used to Jihad, so it is difficult for us to live without it, and we have nothing to do more than fighting the Crusaders. I see that I should leave everything regarding the treaty behind. We should opt for Jihad instead, and God is with us, and upon His Grace and Care we depend." However, his counselors agreed to the treaty on the pretext that the country was about to be totally destroyed; the soldiers were very tired and fatigued, and food supplies were scarce. If there were no treaty, the Crusaders would insist on fighting, which would be very bad for the Muslims. If there was a treaty, the country would take a rest and restore its prosperity, and the soldiers would rest as well and be able to prepare for retaliation. They all agreed that the Crusaders were not of the kind that abide by their word of promise, so they advised Salah El-Deen to make the treaty so that the forces of the Crusaders would dismantle and divert. They kept pushing and pressuring him till he finally agreed to the treaty.
2. This treaty was a short, temporary truce. It was not intended to last as a permanent solution. The Islamic shariah (the Muslim code of religious law) authorizes the making of temporary truces with the enemy for the general good of the Muslims. The history of Islam is full of such treaties. However, the battles continued immediately after the treaty.
3. This treaty did not contain any admittance on the part of the Muslims for the Crusaders to have any legal right in Palestine. The treaty simply stated that there should be no fighting over the lands they had occupied for a certain period of time.
What a great difference there is between this treaty, of which Muslims had made many over their history, and the peace agreement made now with the Zionist entity in our contemporary time.
Salah El-Deen died shortly afterward, mayGod rest his soul, on 27 Safar 589 H (4 March 1193 CE), i.e., only six months after the treaty.
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The Ayoubis and their struggle with the Crusaders
After his death, Salah El-Deen's successors were fiercely fighting each other--a thing that weakened the Muslims and strengthened the kingdom of the Crusaders in Akka, which was expanding at the expense of the Muslims. The love of power and pleasure, even at the expense of principles and values, was the basic characteristic of some of the Sultans of the Ayoubi State. They made alliances more than once with the Crusaders to help them against their rivals. Sometimes they even offered Jerusalem city to the Crusaders in exchange for help against the Sultan of Sham or Egypt and vice versa!
The Crusaders were very happy with the role they played, but their greed was centred on everyone and everything. But their spring did not last very long.
The fourth campaign sent by the Crusaders to the west in 601 H (1204 CE) ended in Constantinople and did not reach as far as Sham or Egypt. As to the fifth campaign, it was launched from Akka under the leadership of its own king, Johanna Bareen, to the city of Demiat in Egypt between 615-618 H (1218-1221 CE). When the Ayoubian Sultan Al-Kamel Mohammed Bin Mohammed Bin Ayoub realized the gravity of the situation, he offered peace to the Crusaders in exchange for the surrender of Jerusalem and most of Salah El-Deen's liberated cities. They refused and asked for the southeast of Jordan, too, i.e. the cities of Karak and Shoubak. As a result, the great king Issa Bin Ahmed Bin Ayoub, the ruler of Damascus, ruined and sabotaged the walls of Jerusalem in 616 H (1219 CE) so that they could be of no use to the Crusaders should they invade the Holy City. But the Ayoubis finally gathered their forces and managed to defeat the Crusaders, who returned, humiliated, to Akka after they had missed a great opportunity.
The discord between Al-Kamel Mohammed and the great Issa led to the former going to seek help from Fredrik the Second, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, who became regent on the throne of the kingdom of the Crusaders in Akka. Al-Kamel promised the emperor the city of Jerusalem if he helped him against his brother the great Issa. Fredrik the Second led the sixth campaign of the Crusaders and reached Akka in the year 625 H (1228 CE). Even though the great Issa died and his brothers Al-Kamel and Al-Ashraf took his State and gave his son Al-Nassir Dawoud the cities of Karak, Balqa, Agwar, Salt and Shoubak, and Al-Kamel was not in need for Fredrik the Second any more, he gave him Jerusalem just to fulfill the promise he made to him! Fredrik, at the time, did not have the power to force Muslims to surrender Jerusalem. He even begged, at certain stages of his negotiation with Al-Kamel, for it. Fredrik was quoted as saying to Al-Kamel, "I am your subordinate and faithful slave. If your Highness granted me the honour to take the country, it would be a great gift that would make me proud of myself amongst all the kings of the sea." Al-Kamel responded, and made the Jaffa treaty with Fredrik in 626 H (18 February 1229 CE). The treaty was meant to last for 10 years. It stated that the Crusaders would take the Holy City of Jerusalem, Bayt Laham, Tabneen, Honeen, Sayda and a strip of Jerusalem land that went through Al-Lad and ended at Jaffa, in addition to the cities of Nassira and the west of Al-Jaleel. The treaty also stated that the holy shrine of Al-Sakhra dome and its mosque should be left to the Muslims.
Thereafter, Jerusalem was returned to the control of the Crusaders. "The Muslim people were very saddened by
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Geography of Palestine
Geography of Palestine
Geographical location Palestine lies to the west of the Asian continent between longitudes 15-34 and 40-35 to the east, and between latitudes 30-29 and 15-33 to the north. Palestine constitutes the southwestern part of a huge geographical unity in the eastern part of the Arab world, which is Belad El-Sham. In addition to Palestine, Sham contains Lebanon, Syria and Jordan. It used to have common borders with these countries, in addition to Egypt. The borders of Palestine start with Lebanon at Ras El-Nakoura at the Mediterranean sea and head in a straight line to the east till it reaches the area beyond the small Lebanese city of Bent Jubayel, where the separating line between the two countries curves to the north at a straight angle. At that point, the border comes around the fountain of the River Jordan, and a narrow passage adjacent to it from the east connects it with the land of Syria and the lakes Al-Hola, Lout and Tabarriyya. The border with Jordan begins to the south of Tabarriyya Lake at the drainage of Al-Yarmouk River. It continues along the River Jordan. From the fountain of the River Jordan, the border heads south across the geometrical middle of the Dead Sea and the Araba Valley till it reaches the of Aqaba. The borders with Egypt could be compared to a straight line that separates the semi-island of Seena and Al-Naqab desert. The border begins at Rafah at the Mediterranean Sea till it reaches Taba at the Gulf of Aqaba. On the west side, Palestine lies next to the international open waters of the Mediterranean Sea at a distance of about 250 km from Ras El-Nakoura in the north to Rafah in the south. Because of its location in the middle of several Arab countries, Palestine constitutes a combination of natural and humanistic geography for a wide terrestrial field that comprises the originality of Bedouin life in the south and the style of long settlement in the north. The Palestinian land is featured with being part of the first man's home, the place for all the celestial religions, the place were ancient civilizations rose and a bridge for commercial activities and the military incursions across so many different historical eras. The strategic location Palestine enjoys allowed it to be a connecting factor between the continents of the ancient worlds of Asia, Africa and Europe. It is a place that allows for easy travel to other adjacent places. It was a crossing bridge for people from a long time, and it enjoys a focal location that attracts all those who want to settle down and live in prosperity. Therefore, it is quite natural that Palestine was the centre for the greed of many to have it under control and to exploit its merits. For both peace and war, the location of Palestine is of great significance. In the ancient times, Palestine represented one of the most important trade routes. It connected the homes of civilizations of the Nile Valley and the southern areas of the Arab peninsula on one hand and the homes of civilizations in the northern areas in Belad El-Sham and Iraq on the other. Palestine has always been a passage for trade caravans before and after the coming of Islam. The Arab caravans used to head to Palestine from the Arab peninsula in the summer as part of the summer and winter journeys mentioned in the Holy Qur'an. It was also a passage for the Arabian tribes that came from the Arab peninsula on their way to Belad El-Sham or northern Africa. Some of these tribes settled in Palestine, while others settled in the neighbouring regions. The importance of the commercial location of Palestine increased during the Mamaleek era when it used to be a passage for the commercial caravans that carried goods from the Far East to Europe and vice versa. The trade ships used to stop at Aden and unload their cargo so that it would be transported by caravans across Yemen and Hejaz and then to the Palestinian ports on the Mediterranean Sea. The ships in the ports waited to be loaded with different kinds of goods such as silk, perfumes, jewelry, and the like, to be transferred to European ports. Palestine still enjoys the importance of its commercial location because it represents a connection between the seasonal and circular environments in southern Asia and the Near East on the one hand and the environments of the Mediterranean Sea and middle and western Europe on the other. There is no doubt, however, that the different environments with their varied products share a great deal of commercial transactions. Thus the location of Palestine connects the agricultural civilization of the East with the industrial civilization of the West. Therefore Palestine became an important passage for the international trade and travelers alike on land, sea and air. On the other hand, the Palestinian ports provided its neighbours to the east in Syria and Jordan with its services till the year 1948. The Jordanian international trade depended highly upon these ports, but it changed its geographical direction after the Zionist occupation of Palestine took place. Thereafter, the Jordanian traders headed to the Lebanese and the Syrian ports, in addition to the Gulf of Aqaba. The Iraqi oil that was flowing from the field of Karkouk to the north of Iraq to Haifa's refinery also stopped in 1948. If we exclude the Gaza port, whose services were limited to the Gaza district, the rest of the Palestinian ports, whether on the Mediterranean such as Haifa, Jaffa, Asdoud, Akka, Ashkelon or on the Gulf of Aqaba such as Elat, still provide the Zionist entity with a great service. This is because the direction of the Palestinian trade stretches across the ports of the Mediterranean Sea to Europe and North America and Latin America and across the Elat port to southern Asia and the Far East and to the eastern side of Africa. As to the military significance of the Palestinian location, it issues in the fact that Palestine was the centre of so many military campaigns because it was a passage to other countries in for the military incursions that took place. So many nations and forces occupied Palestine such as the Babylonians, the Ashourians, Al-Hethyeen, the Persians, the Greeks and the Romans, till it was finally joined with the great Islamic State and became a very important part of it. In the late eighteenth century, Palestine was attacked by the campaign led by Napoleon Bonaparte, whose aim was to occupy Belad El-Sham. He failed at occupying Akka because of the great bravery shown by the people of Palestine and the leader of Akka, Ahmed El-Azaz. In the present century, Palestine was subject to a British invasion during the First World War, which led to the ousting of the Ottomans and the occupation of Palestine under the pretext of a British mandate. Britain and the allied forces took great advantage of Palestine's location in the Second World War. Before leaving Palestine on 25 May 1948, the British paved the way for the erection of a Zionist entity in Palestine to serve as a base for Western countries and as a separation point that divides the body of the Muslim Arab nation. Since 1948 up to the present, the Zionist entity still holds Palestine captive and exploits its merits and makes use of its strategic geographical location for its hostile and malicious anti-Arab plans. Top -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Borders and area The border between Egypt and Palestine was drawn in the year 1906, while the borders with Palestine and Syria and Lebanon was drawn in 1920 in accordance with a French-British agreement. The United Nations approved the British memorandum concerning defining the eastern frontier between Palestine and Jordan on 23 September 1922. Britain and France made further modifications to the Palestinian borders with Syria and Lebanon in the years 1922 and 1923. These modifications included some of the Syrian and Lebanese lands as part of Palestine. The area of Palestine under the British mandate was 27,000 square kilometres, and the length of its borders, on the land and sea, is 949 km, 719 km of which are land borders and 230 km of which are sea borders. The Palestinian-Jordanian border is the longest land border for Palestine. It is about 360 km long, whereas the length of the border with Egypt is around 210 km, Lebanon is about 79 km and Syria is around 70 km. The Palestinian coast on the Mediterranean is about 224 km, and the length of the coast on the Gulf of Aqaba is only 6 km. If we look carefully at the map of Palestine, we would immediately notice its rectangular shape whose length of about 450 km begins from the north near Banias on the Syrian border to the south in the Gulf of Aqaba. The width hardly surpasses 180 km in its longest part. This prolonged shaped is not very useful because it is neither circular nor square, which will ultimately lead to the dismantling of Palestine rather than uniting it. The border Palestine has makes it a land-sea country, albeit the land side predominates. Furthermore, the border seems too long for the country's total area; for each 37.5 square kilometres, there is 1 kilometre of the border length for Palestine; this is a big ratio indeed. It signifies a great weakness on the military side if compared with the borders of other countries. The northern borders of Palestine along the Mediterranean begin at Ras Al-Nakoura in the west. It run in a straightforward manner towards the east, and suddenly hto the north as if it were a peninsula that stretches between Syria to the east and Lebanon to the west at a distance of more than 30 km. These borders were designed to satisfy the Zionists. They wanted the northern border to start at the Litani River, i.e., to the north of the present borders comprising about 40 km. They also wanted the fountains of the rivers Banias and Al-Qadhi to be within the borders of Palestine. This unusual request was received with some resistance by the French mandate over Syria and Lebanon. France insisted that the fountains of the two rivers be within the Syrian border to secure the road that connects the southwest of Syria to the north and east of Lebanon in compensation for the rivers of Litani and Banias. This northern expansion was meant to include the higher fountains of the River Jordan. This would include it to Palestine along with some of the Syrian lands that were close to the rivers Banias and Al-Qadhi. Some of the Lebanese villages close to the rivers Hasbani and Litani, such as Mansoura, Salha, Hwueen and Tarbekha, were also included. The eastern borders from the north to the south clearly begin at the Banias Syrian village and then head towards the south, leaving the River Jordan and its fountains inside the border of Palestine. The border also runs parallel to the hills of Al-Hola, another indication that it also falls within Palestine. The borders also come near the northeastern shores of Al-Tabarriyya Lake, a distance of no more than 10 metres, till it reaches the site of Masfeer at the middle of the eastern shore, where it starts to move away until it reaches the Yarmouk River. The borders begin to move away and are far from the Lake, about 3 km or more. At this point, the border runs parallel with the River Jordan and continues through the Dead Sea till it reaches the Gulf of Aqaba. The border with Egypt was made in accordance with the agreement made in the year 1906 between the representatives of the Ottoman State and the Khedewui dynasty in Egypt. This border represented a managerial separation between the State of Hejaz and Jerusalem on one part, and with the semi-island of Seena on the other. The border was mostly a straight line, and ran parallel with the longitude 34 to the east. The line runs through the eastern part of Seena across the peaks of the desert hills to connect Rafah on the Mediterranean and Taba at the Gulf of Aqaba. Britain approved the border the moment it was announced. Top -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The regional elevations Palestine is characterized by the clarity of the shapes of its surface and the simplicity of its geological structure, which is composed of various layers of rocky stones of basalt, mud and granite. This is typical throughout most of the geological ages from the first geological period up to the modern times. The shape of the land's surface varies from below sea level depressions and flat plains, which rise a little bit on the sea level, to the medium and high mounds that have several mountains. Despite the fact that Palestine's area is relatively small-27,000 square kilometres--and its structure is simple, it has the following regional elevations: 1. The region of coastal plains This region stretches from Ras Al-Nakoura in the north to Rafah in the south. It is confined between mountains in the east and the Mediterranean in the west. This region is composed of plain flat land close to the sea level. Though the surface is generally plain, there are some small heights, some sand hills and some glens that cut through the region, coming from the mountain heights and heading to the Mediterranean Sea. The land is generally descending from east to west. It is important to note that the seacoast stretches in a straight line; there are no curves or bays, except for the bay of Akka, which was formed owing to a depression in the land. There are also some little edges that move slightly into the sea such as Ras El-Karmel, Al-Nakoura and Jaffa. The coastal plains consist of coastal sand precipitation mixed with those of mud and small stones that were brought from the mountains by the glens. This material forms the red sand of the Mediterranean. This sand is characterized with being light, fertile and parasitic. It keeps humidity and can be easily ventilated, making it ideal for citrus fruits, grapes, olives and many other types of plants. In addition to the fertility of the land, it is also rich in groundwater. Despite the relative flatness of the surface of this plain, it starts to rise inwardly from the sea. It appears as a high plain surrounded at the base with the heights of middle Palestine from the east. It is locally known as the plain of Salouna. This part of the land of Palestine is geographically unique in many ways. The most important part is probably its sea climate, which is very moderate in its temperature. It is the warmest area in Palestine in the winter, and the coolest in the summer. The temperature does not drop below 19 degrees in December and never exceeds 26 degrees in August, on average. More important is the seasonal winter rain, which can exceed 800 cubic millimetres of rain annually in the north in Karmel. However, the average rainfall decreases in the regions further south. The city of Rafah never gets more than 150 cubic millimetres of rain annually. The Akka plain, which starts from Ras El-Nakoura, has black sand and is suitable for growing vegetables and fruits and oranges. It is 12 km wide at Akka. This plain is full with hills that indicate that it was populated with people who used to farm the land from the time of Al Jazar. The coastal plain of Sharon starts from Karmel and expands from 200 metres till it reaches 35 kilometres southwards to Jaffa. The sands of Sharon are formed by the crumbling of rocks at various locations and then transferred by natural forces. The salts of the crumbled rocks melt in the water, which gives the soil more fertility. Beneath the precipitated soils there are calcite rocks that were degenerated by the influence of carbonic acid. Because of the abundance of iron in this soil, it appears red, it is easy to crumble, and it is suitable for growing grains and citrus fruits. 2. The region of mountain heights This region is composed of mounds and small mountain chains through which there are some internal plains. This region is often seen as the backbone of the Palestinian land, and it stretches from the north to the farthest point in the south at the Naqab desert. The height of the region land does not generally exceed 1,000 metres. The land gradually descends towards the internal plains in the west and more towards the east, till it reaches the Jordan Valley with its mountain edges and high cliffs. The valleys have dug deeply into the calcite mounds from the Mediterranean Sea at the west to the River Jordan at the east. Most of these valleys are dry or seasonal and flood with water immediately after the rainfall. The region of mountain heights can be divided into two units: Al-Jaleel and the middle mountain chain. (a) Al-Jaleel. Palestinian expansion of Al Jaleel is often considered an extension of the Lebanese Al-Jaleel, which is also known as the mass of Amel Mountain. The height of the land in Al-Jaleel rises gradually, and it reaches its highest point in the north at Al-Jaleel Al-A'ala. Its lowest point is in the south at the plain of Marj Ibn Amer. Al-Jaleel mass descends sharply to the Jordan Valley at the highest point and the middle point descends to the east. However, it descends gradually to the plain of Akka to the west. Al-Jaleel area is estimated to be 2,083 square kilometres. Al-Jaleel can be divided into the following subdivisions: (i) Al-Jaleel Al-A'ala (the Highest) consists of a high mountain mound with a length of 40 km from east to west. Its width is 25 km from north to south. The Jarmaq Mountain is considered the highest in its chain with a height of 1,208 metres to the northwest of Safad, which is the highest peak in Palestine. Many valleys extend from Jarmaq and head to the northwest, the northeast and the east. There are other high mountains in Al-Jaleel such as 'an Mountain (936 m [on which the city of Safad was erected]), Haydar Mountain (1,047 m [to the north of Al Ramah village]) and Adathir Mountain (1,006 m [near the village of Sa'sa'a]). The mound of Al-Jaleel Al-A'ala was subject to great depressions and volcanic eruptions in the ancient geological times. These activities left black basaltic spots over the surface of the mound and many breaking valleys that head to the Jordan Valley. Thus the land there is very coarse and rough. (ii) Al-Jaleel Al-Adna (the Lowest) begins to the south of Al-Jaleel Al-A'ala. The valley of Shagour separates them from each other. It is less high, with a height of no more than 200 m above sea level. It is also more fertile than the northern parts. Its length is about 50 km from east to west, and its width is more than 15 km from north to south. It is composed of parallel mountain chains extending from east to west, between which there are many wide valleys and open plains. The most important of these mountains are Tabour or Tour mountain (562 m) to the east of Nassira; Al-Dahhi or Harmoun El-Sageer mountain (550 m) to the south of Nassira; and Al-Nabi Sa'een mountain (500 m), which is one of the peaks surrounding Al-Nassira. The most important valleys are Al-Fajjas valley and Al-Beera valley; they both end at the Jordan River. One of its famous plains is the Hitteen plain on which the battle of Hitteen took place and Salah El-Deen defeated the Crusaders. There is also the Battouf plain on which the Zionist entity erected a dam to store the water from the Jordan River. This area also witnessed a depression in the ancient geological periods. As a result, low level plains emerged along with the black basaltic spots. The hot mineral water fountains were erupted in the area of Himma near Tabarriyya. (iii) The plain of Marj Ibn Amer was named after the clan of Bani Amer from Bani Kalb, who inhabited the area at the first Islamic entrance to the city. It was called the "Marj" (meadow) because of the growth of wild bushy plants on it and because of its wide open area in which cattle roamed freely. This plain was formed as a result of the land depressions that took place a long time ago. It is characterized by its flatness, though with some small heights here and there, and the existence of high steep cliffs at the edges. There are many opening passages that connect the plain to other areas. The most famous passages are the passage of Majdou and the valley of Mukatta' river, which connect it to the coastal plains of Palestine, and the valley of Zar'een, which connects it to the depression through Baysan and then to Irbid to the east and to Damascus to the north. The road of Janeen-Sahl Arabeh also connects this plain to the middle areas and south of Palestine. This plain separates Al-Jaleel from the mountains of Nablus and Al Karmel. Its height is about 60 to 75 metres above sea level. Its length is about 40 km from west to east, and its width is about 19 km from north to south. Its area is estimated to be 351 square km. In the middle, at Al-Afouleh, its land starts to descend towards the east to the Jordan Valley (the depression of Baysan), where the Jalout valley runs and its waters are drained into the Jordan River. The land also descends towards the west to the plain of Akka where the Mukatta' river runs till it reaches the Gulf of Akka. Its soil is mostly mud that is suitable for growing grains, and it is considered one of the fertile lands in Palestine. That is why the Zionists settled in it first after the British mandate. (iv) The middle mountain chain stretches between Marj Ibn Amer to the north and the area of Beer El-Sabe' to the south. Its area, including Karmel Mountain, is estimated to be 529 square kilometres. It is comprised of a high mound in which there are some closed plains that are surrounded by the mountains. Its surface is irregular and varies between the
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